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Constantine VI (771-804) was the only child of Emperor Leo IV and Empress Irene. He was crowned co-emperor in 776, and became sole emperor in 780, aged only nine. Due to his young age, his mother Irene and her chief minister Staurakios ruled in his stead. However, even when Constantine was of age at sixteen, his mother still refused to hand over executive authority to him.
Leo IV (750-780), also known as Leo the Khazar, was the son of Emperor Constantine V by his first wife, Irene of Khazaria. He became co-emperor in 751, and married a noble Athenian woman also named Irene in 769. Leo became sole emperor in 775 with the death of his father.<br/><br/> Constantine VI (771-804) was the only child of Emperor Leo IV and Empress Irene. He was crowned co-emperor in 776, and became sole emperor in 780, aged only nine. Due to his young age, his mother Irene and her chief minister Staurakios ruled in his stead. However, even when Constantine was of age at sixteen, his mother still refused to hand over executive authority to him.
Constantine V (718-775), also known as Constantine the Dung-named, was the son of Emperor Leo III. He succeeded his father in 741, but was almost immediately betrayed by his own brother-in-law Artabasdos, who attacked him while Constantine was crossing Asia Minor to campaign against the Umayyad Caliphate. Constantine was defeated and had to retreat to Amorion, while Artabasdos entered Constantinople and became emperor.<br/><br/> Constantine eventually retook the throne in 743, having his rivals blinded and executed. He became an even more fervent iconoclast than his father, which was what led to the derogatory surname of 'Dung-named', given to him by religious enemies opposed to his rejection of the veneration of holy images.<br/><br/> Constantine was also an able administrator and general, and waged wars against the Umayyad Caliphate and the Bulgarians. It was while campaigning in the Balkans against the latter that he eventually died in 775, and was promptly succeeded by his eldest son and co-emperor Leo IV.
Leo III (685-741), also known as Leo the Isaurian and Leo the Syrian and whose original name was Konon, was born in the Syrian province of Commagene. He served under Emperor Justinian II when the emperor was attempting to reclaim his throne. After Justinian's victory, Leo was sent to fight against the Umayyad Caliphate, and was appointed as overall commander by Emperor Anastasius II.<br/><br/> Leo became ambitious, and conspired with his fellow commanders, to overthrow the new emperor, Theodosius III. He entered Constantinople in 717 and forced Theodosius to abdicate, and was crowned Leo III.
Anastasius I (431-518), also known as Anastasius Dicorus, was born into an Illyrian family. After Emperor Zeno's death in 491 CE, many citizens of the empire wanted both a Roman and an Orthodox Christian emperor. In response, Zeno's widow and Emperor Leo I's daughter Ariadne turned to Anastasius, who was in his sixties when he married Ariadne and ascended to the throne.<br/><br/> Anastasius soon had to deal with the usurper Longinus, brother of the late Zeno, engaging in the Isaurian War and defeating Longinus in 497. He later fought against the Sassanid Empire in the Anastasian War, the war raging from 502 until 506 when peace was made and the status quo returned to. He also had to contend with invasions by Bulgars and Slavs into the Balkan provinces.<br/><br/> Overall, Anastasius' reign was marked for its recognisable accomplishments in terms of bureaucracy and economy. His reforms to taxing, government corruption and new forms of currency resulted in the imperial government being left with a sizable budget surplus by the time he died in 518, aged 87.
Maurice (539-602) was born in Cappadocia and quickly rose to become a prominent general in his youth, with numerous successes under his belt from campaigning against the Sassanid Empire. He married Constantina, Emperor Tiberius II's daughter, and succeeded his father-in-law as emperor in 582, inheriting a tumultuous situation of numerous warring fronts and high tributes to Avar barbarians.<br/><br/> Maurice quickly brought the war against the Sassanids to a victorious conclusion and vastly expanded the Byzantine Empire's eastern border in the Caucasus. He pushed the Avars back across the Danube River in 599, and became the first Roman emperor to campaign across the Danube in over two centuries. In the West, Maurice established two large semi-autonomous provinces known as exarchates. One was established in Italy, in Ravenna, while the other was in Africa, solidifying Constantinople's power in the western Mediterranean.<br/><br/> Maurice's reign was troubled with almost constant warfare and financial difficulties however, resulting in a dissatisfied general rising up and executing Maurice and his six sons in 602. This proved cataclysmic to the Empire, leading to a twenty-six year war with the Sassanids that left both empires devastated prior to the rise of the Muslim conquests.
Tiberius II Constantine (520-582) was born in Thrace and close friend to future emperor Justin II. Tiberius became commander of the Excubitors imperial guard, and when Justin II acceded to emperor, Tiberius was made his chief military commander. When Justin had a mental breakdown, his wife Sophia turned to Tiberius to manage the empire, and he was later named co-emperor and adopted son by Justin in 574.<br/><br/> Tiberius became sole emperor after Justin died in 578, and almost had to deal with a plot to overthrow him perpetrated by Justin's widow, the dowager empress Sophia. The conspiracy failed, and Tiberius returned his attention to fighting the Sassanids in the east, as well as towards military activities in the remnants of the Western Roman Empire.<br/><br/> By the time of his death from food poisoning in 582, the Eastern Roman Empire had become too overextended, the war against the Sassanids dragging on while raids by Avars and Slav migrations drained imperial resources. He named his general Maurice as his successor, seeing him married to his daughter Constantina before passing away.
Anastasius I (431-518), also known as Anastasius Dicorus, was born into an Illyrian family. After Emperor Zeno's death in 491 CE, many citizens of the empire wanted both a Roman and an Orthodox Christian emperor. In response, Zeno's widow and Emperor Leo I's daughter Ariadne turned to Anastasius, who was in his sixties when he married Ariadne and ascended to the throne.<br/><br/> Anastasius soon had to deal with the usurper Longinus, brother of the late Zeno, engaging in the Isaurian War and defeating Longinus in 497. He later fought against the Sassanid Empire in the Anastasian War, the war raging from 502 until 506 when peace was made and the status quo returned to. He also had to contend with invasions by Bulgars and Slavs into the Balkan provinces.<br/><br/> Overall, Anastasius' reign was marked for its recognisable accomplishments in terms of bureaucracy and economy. His reforms to taxing, government corruption and new forms of currency resulted in the imperial government being left with a sizable budget surplus by the time he died in 518, aged 87.
Turkey / Byzantium: Justin II (520-578), Byzantine emperor, from the book <i>Icones imperatorvm romanorvm</i> (Icons of Roman Emperors), Antwerp, c. 1645. Justin was the nephew of Emperor Justinian I and had supposedly been named his heir on the emperor's deathbed. Justin's early rule relied completely on the support of the aristocratic party, and faced with an empty treasury, he stopped paying off potential enemies as his uncle had done, leading to Avar invasions across the Danube river.
Turkey / Byzantium: Leo III (685-741) and Constantine V (718-775), Byzantine emperors, from the book <i>Icones imperatorvm romanorvm</i> (Icons of Roman Emperors), Antwerp, c. 1645. Leo III served under Emperor Justinian II when the emperor was attempting to reclaim his throne. After Justinian's victory, Leo was sent to fight against the Umayyad Caliphate, and was appointed as overall commander by Emperor Anastasius II. Leo became ambitious, and he conspired to overthrow the new Emperor Theodosius III. Entering Constantinople in 717 he forced Theodosius to abdicate. He was succeeded by his son and heir, Constantine V, also known as Constantine the Dung-named.
Heraclius (575-641) was son of Heraclius the Elder, exarch of Africa, who led a revolt against the usurper emperor Phocas, deposing him in 610. Heraclius became emperor and was immediately forced to deal with multiple threats on many frontiers.<br/><br/> One of the main frontiers was the Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602-628 against King Khosrau II and the Sassanid Empire. The Sassanids managed to fight all the way to the walls of Constantinople before failing to penetrate them, allowing Heraclius to counter-attack and drive them all the way back to the capital of Ctesiphon. Khosrau was executed by his son Kavadh II, and a peace treaty was agreed to. The Sassanid Empire soon fell to the Muslim conquests, another threat Heraclius had to deal with.<br/><br/> Heraclius was credited for making Greek the Byzantine Empire's official language, as well as for his enlarging of the empire and his reorganisation of government and military. Though his attempts at religious harmony failed, he was successful in returning the True Cross to Jerusalem.
Turkey / Byzantium: Justin I (450-527), Byzantine emperor, from the book <i>Icones imperatorvm romanorvm</i> (Icons of Roman Emperors), Antwerp, c. 1645. Justin I was a peasant and swineherd by birth, and after fleeing to Constantinople from an invasion, joined the army. His ability and skill saw him rise through the ranks to eventually become a general under Emperor Anastasius I. Justin I became so close to the emperor that by the time of his death in 518, Justin had become commander of the Excubitors, the palace guard. He was able to secure election as emperor due to his position and carefully placed bribes to the troops in the city.
Turkey / Byzantium: Marcian (392-457), Byzantine emperor, from the book <i>Icones imperatorvm romanorvm</i> (Icons of Roman Emperors), Antwerp, 1645. Marcian was the son of a soldier from either Illyricum or Thracia, and spent much of his early life as an unremarkable soldier. He served under the powerful Alan generals Ardabur and Aspar in Africa, where he was taken prisoner by the Vandals. Returning to Constantinople, he became a senator and was later chosen as consort to Pulcheria, sister of the recently deceased Emperor Theodosius II. Marcian became emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire in 450.
Justinian II (668-711), later known as Justinian the Slit-Nosed, was the eldest son of Emperor Constantine IV, and became joint emperor in 681. He later succeeded his father as sole emperor in 685, aged sixteen. Justinian was ambitious and passionate, wishing to restore the emperor to former glories and past successes.<br/><br/> However, Justinian's lack of finesse and his poor attitude towards any opposition to his will led to resistance throughout his reign. He was eventually deposed in a popular uprising led by Leontios in 695, who proclaimed himself emperor and exiled Justinian after having his nose cut off. Justinian soon began plotting his return from exile in Crimea, gathering supporters to him. Justinian eventually regained the throne in 705 from usurper emperor Tiberios, having both Tiberios and the imprisoned Leontios dragged out in public and executing them.<br/><br/> His second reign was even more contentious, marked by his turning on those who had helped him reclaim the throne. Another uprising eventually occurred, led by the exiled General Bardanes. Justinian, who had been on his way to Armenia, attempted to once more rouse support for his claim, but he was arrested and executed in 711 instead, ending the Heraclian dynasty.
Philippicus (-713), also known as Philippikos Bardanes, was the son of an Armenian patrician in the Byzantine Empire. Not much is known of Philippicus' early years, but he soon had aspirations for the imperial throne, relying heavily on the support of the Monothelite party. However, his attempts during the first great rebellion against Emperor Justinian II failed with his relegation to Cephalonia by Tiberius, who took the throne for himself.<br/><br/> Unhappy with his situation, Philippicus bided his time and began inciting the local inhabitants to revolt, aided by the Khazars. After Justinian II had returned to the throne, Philippicus finally struck and managed to seize Constantinople, leading to Justinian's later assassination as he attempted to rally support in the provinces.<br/><br/> Philippicus immediately began his reign by changing the religious leaders of the empire to suit his sect, leading to the Roman Church refusing to recognise him. He also faced Bulgarian raids and Arabian attacks, ultimately resulting in a rebellion in Thrace which saw several officers enter the capital city and blind Philippicus in 713. He died later in the same year, succeeded by his prinicipal secretary Artemius, who took the name Anastasius II.
Turkey / Byzantium: Anastasius II (-719), Byzantine emperor, from the book <i>Icones imperatorvm romanorvm</i> (Icons of Roman Emperors), Antwerp, c. 1645. Anastasius II, also known as Anastasios II and originally named Artemius, was a bureaucrat and imperial secretary in the Byzantine court. He was proclaimed emperor by the Opsician army after they had overthrown Emperor Philippicus. Changing his name to Anastasius, he took the throne and turned on those who had aided his rise by executing those directly involved in the conspiracy against Philippicus.
Constantine V (718-775), also known as Constantine the Dung-named, was the son of Emperor Leo III. He succeeded his father in 741, but was almost immediately betrayed by his own brother-in-law Artabasdos, who attacked him while Constantine was crossing Asia Minor to campaign against the Umayyad Caliphate. Constantine was defeated and had to retreat to Amorion, while Artabasdos entered Constantinople and became emperor.<br/><br/> Constantine eventually retook the throne in 743, having his rivals blinded and executed. He became an even more fervent iconoclast than his father, which was what led to the derogatory surname of 'Dung-named', given to him by religious enemies opposed to his rejection of the veneration of holy images.<br/><br/> Constantine was also an able administrator and general, and waged wars against the Umayyad Caliphate and the Bulgarians. It was while campaigning in the Balkans against the latter that he died in 775, and was promptly succeeded by his eldest son and co-emperor Leo IV.
Constantine VI (771-804) was the only child of Emperor Leo IV and Empress Irene. He was crowned co-emperor in 776, and became sole emperor in 780, aged only nine. Due to his young age, his mother Irene and her chief minister Staurakios ruled in his stead. However, even when Constantine was of age at sixteen, his mother still refused to hand over executive authority to him.<br/><br/> Constantine was to marry Rotrude, the daughter of the future Holy Roman Emperor Charlemagne, in 788, but his mother broke off the engagement and instead supported Charlemagne's enemies. When Irene attempted to get official recognition as empress in 790, the plan backfired and Constantine was finally given the throne through military support, though his mother was still allowed to keep the title of empress.<br/><br/> Constantine soon proved he was not a capable leader however, suffering humiliating defeats at the hands of the Arabs and Bulgarians. When his uncle was favoured to replace him, he had his eyes put out and the tongues of his other uncles torn off. He became vastly unpopular, and in 797 was himself blinded and imprisoned by his mother's supporters. Irene was then crowned as Constantinople's first Empress Regnant. Constantine's date of death is unknown, though it was definitely before 805. Irene herself ruled until she was overthrown in 802, where she was then exiled to Lesbos and died the following year.
Zeno the Isaurian (425-491), originally known as Tarasis Kodisa Rousombladadiotes, was an Isaurian officer serving in the Eastern Roman army. He became an ally to Emperor Leo, marrying his daughter Ariadne and helping him assassinate the Alan general Aspar, who held much influence in Constantinople. He took the name Zeno, apparently from another famous Isaurian officer who had fought against Attila, to make himself more acceptable to Roman hierarchy.<br/><br/> When Leo died in 474, Zeno's son Leo II became emperor, but as he was only seven at the time, he was convinced to name his father co-emperor. Zeno soon became sole emperor when his son died from an illness. Due to his barbarian origins, Zeno was not popular with the people and the Senate, despite his successes in foreign issues and stabilising the empire. Domestic revolts and religious dissension marked his reign, as well as the fall of the Western Roman Empire.<br/><br/> Zeno died in 491 from either dysentery or epilepsy, with no sons to succeed him. A popular legend states that Zeno had been buried alive after becoming insensible, either from drinking or from illness. He called out for help, but his wife Ariadne did not allow anyone to open the sarcophagus.
Theodosius II (401-450), also known as Theodosius the Younger and Theodosius the Calligrapher, was the son of Emperor Arcadius of the Eastern Roman Empire. He was proclaimed co-ruler and Augustus a year after his birth, becoming the youngest person to ever bear the title. He became emperor after his father's death in 408 CE, aged only seven.<br/><br/> His older sister Pulcheria briefly assumed regency as Augusta until Theodosius was old enough in 416 CE. Theodosius was a devout Christian, waging wars against the Sassanids and others who persecuted Christianity. He also had to deal with the Huns under Attila, forced to constantly pay them off to maintain peace.<br/><br/> Theodosius was also known for promulgating the Theodosian law code and for his founding of the University of Constantinople. Theodosius eventually died in 450 CE from a riding accident, leading to a power struggle between his sister Pulcheria and the eunuch Chrysaphius.
Arcadius (377-408) was the eldest son of Emperor Theodosius I, born in Hispania. He was declared as co-ruler of the east in 383, only six years old. When his father died in 395, Arcadius became emperor of the East, co-ruling the Roman Empire with his brother Honorius in the West.<br/><br/> Aracdius was known for being a weak ruler, his reign dominated by the ministers that surrounded him, as well as by his wife Aelia Eudoxia. Arcadius himself seemed more concerned with appearing as a pious Christian rather than as a politician or general.<br/><br/> By the time he died in 408, he was only nominally in control of the Eastern Roman Empire, the true power lying in the hands of the Praetorian Prefect Anthemius.
Justinian I (482-565), also known as Justinian the Great or Saint Justinian the Great, was the nephew of Emperor Justin I, originally born from a peasant family in Tauresium. Justin, before he became emperor, adopted Justinian and raised him in Constantinople. Justinian served in the Imperial Guard, the Excubitors, just as his uncle had, and was made associate emperor in 527 before becoming sole emperor when Justin died in the same year.<br/><br/> Justinian was ambitious and clever, and sought to revive the empire's greatness, planning the reconquest of the western half of the Roman Empire in what was known as 'renovatio imperii' (restoration of the Empire). Justinian was hard-working and known as 'the emperor who never sleeps'. He nearly lost his throne during the Nika riots, and nearly lost his life during the Justinian Plague of the early 540s.<br/><br/> Justinian was a devout Christian and theologian, and his partial recovery of lost Roman territories led him to be called by some as one of the 'last Romans'. His uniform rewriting of Roman law, the 'Corpus Juris Civilis' is perhaps his greatest legacy, which is still used as the basis of civil law in many modern nations. His restoration activities included the building of the Hagia Sophia. He died in 565 without an heir, succeeded by his nephew Justin II.
Tiberius II Constantine (520-582) was born in Thrace and a close friend of the future emperor Justin II. Tiberius became commander of the Excubitors imperial guard, and when Justin II acceded to emperor, Tiberius was made his chief military commander. When Justin had a mental breakdown, his wife Sophia turned to Tiberius to manage the empire, and he was later named co-emperor and adopted son by Justin in 574.<br/><br/> Tiberius became sole emperor after Justin died in 578, and almost immediately had to deal with a plot to overthrow him perpetrated by Justin's widow, the dowager empress Sophia. The conspiracy failed, and Tiberius turned his attention to fighting the Sassanids in the east, as well as towards military activities in the remnants of the Western Roman Empire.<br/><br/> By the time of his death from food poisoning in 582, the Eastern Roman Empire had become overextended, the war against the Sassanids dragging on while raids by Avars and Slav migrations drained imperial resources. He named his general Maurice as his successor, seeing him married to his daughter Constantina before passing away.
Heraclius (575-641) was son of Heraclius the Elder, exarch of Africa, who led a revolt against the usurper emperor Phocas, deposing him in 610. Heraclius became emperor and was immediately forced to deal with multiple threats on many frontiers.<br/><br/> One of the main frontiers was the Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602-628 against King Khosrau II and the Sassanid Empire. The Sassanids managed to fight all the way to the walls of Constantinople before failing to penetrate them, allowing Heraclius to counter-attack and drive them all the way back to the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon. Khosrau was executed by his son Kavadh II, and a peace treaty was agreed. The Sassanid Empire soon fell to the Muslim conquests, another threat Heraclius had to deal with.<br/><br/> Heraclius was credited for making Greek the Byzantine Empire's official language, as well as for his enlarging of the empire and his reorganisation of government and military. Though his attempts at religious harmony failed, he was successful in returning the True Cross to Jerusalem.
Heraclius (575-641) was son of Heraclius the Elder, exarch of Africa, who led a revolt against the usurper emperor Phocas, deposing him in 610. Heraclius became emperor and was immediately forced to deal with multiple threats on many frontiers.<br/><br/> One of the main frontiers was the Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602-628 against King Khosrau II and the Sassanid Empire. The Sassanids managed to fight all the way to the walls of Constantinople before failing to penetrate them, allowing Heraclius to counter-attack and drive them all the way back to the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon. Khosrau was executed by his son Kavadh II, and a peace treaty was agreed. The Sassanid Empire soon fell to the Muslim conquests, another threat Heraclius had to deal with.<br/><br/> Heraclius was credited for making Greek the Byzantine Empire's official language, as well as for his enlarging of the empire and his reorganisation of government and military. Though his attempts at religious harmony failed, he was successful in returning the True Cross to Jerusalem.
Justinian I (482-565), also known as Justinian the Great or Saint Justinian the Great, was the nephew of Emperor Justin I, originally born from a peasant family in Tauresium. Justin, before he became emperor, adopted Justinian and raised him in Constantinople. Justinian served in the Imperial Guard, the Excubitors, just as his uncle had, and was made associate emperor in 527 before becoming sole emperor when Justin died in the same year.<br/><br/> Justinian was ambitious and clever, and sought to revive the empire's greatness, planning the reconquest of the western half of the Roman Empire in what was known as <i>renovatio imperii</i> (restoration of the Empire). Justinian was hard-working and known as 'the emperor who never sleeps'. He nearly lost his throne during the Nika riots, and nearly lost his life during the Justinian Plague of the early 540s.<br/><br/> Justinian was a devout Christian and theologian, and his partial recovery of lost Roman territories led him to be called by some as one of the 'last Romans'. His uniform rewriting of Roman law, the <i>Corpus Juris Civilis</i> is perhaps his greatest legacy, which is still used as the basis of civil law in many modern nations. His restoration activities included the building of the Hagia Sophia. He died in 565 without an heir, succeeded by his nephew Justin II.
Justinian I (482-565), also known as Justinian the Great or Saint Justinian the Great, was the nephew of Emperor Justin I, originally born from a peasant family in Tauresium. Justin, before he became emperor, adopted Justinian and raised him in Constantinople. Justinian served in the Imperial Guard, the Excubitors, just as his uncle had, and was made associate emperor in 527 before becoming sole emperor when Justin died in the same year.<br/><br/> Justinian was ambitious and clever, and sought to revive the empire's greatness, planning the reconquest of the western half of the Roman Empire in what was known as 'renovatio imperii' (restoration of the Empire). Justinian was hard-working and known as 'the emperor who never sleeps'. He nearly lost his throne during the Nika riots, and nearly lost his life during the Justinian Plague of the early 540s.<br/><br/> Justinian was a devout Christian and theologian, and his partial recovery of lost Roman territories led him to be called by some as one of the 'last Romans'. His uniform rewriting of Roman law, the 'Corpus Juris Civilis' is perhaps his greatest legacy, which is still used as the basis of civil law in many modern nations. His restoration activities included the building of the Hagia Sophia. He died in 565 without an heir, succeeded by his nephew Justin II.
Theodosius II (401-450), also known as Theodosius the Younger and Theodosius the Calligrapher, was the son of Emperor Arcadius of the Eastern Roman Empire. He was proclaimed co-ruler and Augustus a year after his birth, becoming the youngest person to ever bear the title. He became emperor after his father's death in 408 CE, aged only seven.<br/><br/> His older sister Pulcheria briefly assumed regency as Augusta until Theodosius was old enough in 416 CE. Theodosius was a devout Christian, waging wars against the Sassanids and others who persecuted Christianity. He also had to deal with the Huns under Attila, forced to constantly pay them off to maintain peace.<br/><br/> Theodosius was also known for promulgating the Theodosian law code and for his founding of the University of Constantinople. Theodosius eventually died in 450 CE from a riding accident, leading to a power struggle between his sister Pulcheria and the eunuch Chrysaphius.
Justinian I (482-565), also known as Justinian the Great or Saint Justinian the Great, was the nephew of Emperor Justin I, originally born from a peasant family in Tauresium. Justin, before he became emperor, adopted Justinian and raised him in Constantinople. Justinian served in the Imperial Guard, the Excubitors, just as his uncle had, and was made associate emperor in 527 before becoming sole emperor when Justin died in the same year.<br/><br/> Justinian was ambitious and clever, and sought to revive the empire's greatness, planning the reconquest of the western half of the Roman Empire in what was known as 'renovatio imperii' (restoration of the Empire). Justinian was hard-working and known as 'the emperor who never sleeps'. He nearly lost his throne during the Nika riots, and nearly lost his life during the Justinian Plague of the early 540s.<br/><br/> Justinian was a devout Christian and theologian, and his partial recovery of lost Roman territories led him to be called by some as one of the 'last Romans'. His uniform rewriting of Roman law, the 'Corpus Juris Civilis' is perhaps his greatest legacy, which is still used as the basis of civil law in many modern nations. His restoration activities included the building of the Hagia Sophia. He died in 565 without an heir, succeeded by his nephew Justin II.
Leo I (401-474), also known as Leo the Thracian, was born in Thracia to a Thraco-Roman family. He served in the Roman army before being placed on the throne by the Alan general, Aspar, who thought Leo would be an easily manipulated puppet emperor. Leo proved himself more independent than expected, and eventually assassinated Aspar. Leo was coronated in 457.<br/><br/>
Zeno the Isaurian (425-491), originally known as Tarasis Kodisa Rousombladadiotes, was an Isaurian officer serving in the Eastern Roman army. He became an ally to Emperor Leo, marrying his daughter Ariadne and helping him assassinate the Alan general Aspar, who held much influence in Constantinople. He took the name Zeno, apparently from another famous Isaurian officer who had fought against Attila, to make himself more acceptable to Roman hierarchy.<br/><br/> When Leo died in 474, Zeno's son Leo II became emperor, but as he was only seven at the time, he was convinced to name his father co-emperor. Zeno soon became sole emperor when his son died from an illness. Due to his barbarian origins, Zeno was not popular with the people and the Senate, despite his successes in foreign issues and stabilising the empire. Domestic revolts and religious dissension marked his reign, as well as the fall of the Western Roman Empire.<br/><br/> Zeno died in 491 from either dysentery or epilepsy, with no sons to succeed him. A popular legend states that Zeno had been buried alive after becoming insensible, either from drinking or from illness. He called out for help, but his wife Ariadne did not allow anyone to open the sarcophagus.
Heraclius (575-641) was son of Heraclius the Elder, exarch of Africa, who led a revolt against the usurper emperor Phocas, deposing him in 610. Heraclius became emperor and was immediately forced to deal with multiple threats on many frontiers.<br/><br/> One of the main frontiers was the Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602-628 against King Khosrau II and the Sassanid Empire. The Sassanids managed to fight all the way to the walls of Constantinople before failing to penetrate them, allowing Heraclius to counter-attack and drive them all the way back to the capital of Ctesiphon. Khosrau was executed by his son Kavadh II, and a peace treaty was agreed to. The Sassanid Empire soon fell to the Muslim conquests, another threat Heraclius had to deal with.<br/><br/> Heraclius was credited for making Greek the Byzantine Empire's official language, as well as for his enlarging of the empire and his reorganisation of government and military. Though his attempts at religious harmony failed, he was successful in returning the True Cross to Jerusalem.
Constantinople, the capital of Constantine XI’s Byzantine Empire, was captured by Sultan Mehmet II and his Ottoman armies after a seven-week siege. Mehmet had applied pressure on Constantinople and the Byzantines by building forts along the Dardanelles. On 5 April, he laid siege to Constantinople with an army numbering 80,000 to 200,000 men. Constantine reportedly fell leading a charge against the invaders, though his body was never found. The last defenders were killed and the Turks proceeded to loot the city. The battle brought down the 1,100-year Byzantine Empire and is seen by many scholars as marking the end of the Middle Ages.